Men’s Health: A Case for Violence
Prevention Programs for African American Youth
Matt
Lauer and Al Roker grew beards in the month of November in solidarity and
support of Men’s Health Month. While much of the focus was one the general
population of men, special attention for young African American men should be
of particular interest as much attention has been placed on the health and
wellness of the population in light of recent events is Ferguson, MO. There are
profound social issues for some members of the population and there is a great
need for social programs for at-risk youth.
African Americans represent 14% of the U.S.
population (44,456,009) yet have the widest gaps in health care compared to
other racial and ethnic groups. Individuals experience alarming rates of heart
disease, diabetes, HIV/AIDS, STDs, and cancer. Early health education and
prevention activities among this population, particularly youth and young
adults, is paramount to improve health and outcomes in later life. Among
the population, the health and wellness of young African American men is of
particular concern. According to the US Census there are 7.4 million African
American males between ages 10-34 (U.S. Census Bureau, 2010).
Several Key public health issues among young
African American men include HIV/AIDS, lack of health insurance, and violence
(Battle, 2002). HIV/AIDS:
African Americans continue to be disproportionately affected by HIV infection.
In 1999, AIDS was the leading cause of death for African American males between
the ages of 25 and 44 years (U.S. Department of Health and Human Services,
1999). Ten years later, the estimated rate of new HIV infections among
African Americans (68.9) was 7.9 times as high as the rate in whites (8.7)
(Center for Disease Control & Prevention, 2014). Of all of the new HIV
infections among African Americans, 51% were among men who have sex with men
(MSM) (CDC, 2014). Lack of health
insurance: Nearly 4 out of 10 young African American men lack health
insurance (The Henry J. Kaiser Family Foundation, 2006). Violence: Among 10 to 24 year olds, homicide is the leading
cause of death for African Americans; the second leading cause of death for
Hispanics; and the third leading cause of death American Indians and Alaska
Natives.
Of the aforementioned health issues violence
among young African American men is of prominent concern. Inner city African
American youth are at risk for interpersonal violence and aggression.
Statistics reveal that homicide is the leading cause of
death for African Americans age 10 to 24 year olds (Centers for Disease Control &
Prevention, 2014). Additionally, among
youth and young adults age 15 to 24 years killed by firearms in the US, 60
percent are African American or Hispanic (Teplin, McClelland,
Abram, & Mileusnic, 2005).
Many young African American men particularly those in urban settings live by
the ‘Code of the Street’, in which they exert extra masculinity to intimidate
peers to establish credibility (Stewart, Schreck,
& Simons, 2006).
Problems with violence are worsened by ill relationships between police and
young African American men. Reports indicate that the likelihood of police
contact (including stops) for African America men in urban settings is higher
than in any other ethnic group (Meares, 2008).
In addition to violence, there
is a great need to educate youth and young adults about bullying. The
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) defines bullying as any unwanted
aggressive behavior(s) by another youth or group of youths who are not
siblings or current dating partners that involves an observed or
perceived power imbalance and is repeated multiple times or is highly likely to
be repeated (CDC, 2014). Up
to 25% of U.S. students are bullied each year and as many as 160,000 students
stay home from school on any given day because they are afraid of being bullied
(Hardy, 2005). Boys are more likely to be involved
in physical or verbal bullying, while girls are more likely to be involved in
relational bullying (Wang, Iannotti, & Nansel, 2009). African-American
adolescents are more likely to be involved in physical, verbal or cyber bullying
but less victimization (Wang, Iannotti, & Nansel, 2009). Bullying can result in physical injury,
social and emotional distress, and even death (CDC, 2014). Victimized youth are
at increased risk for depression, anxiety, sleep difficulties, and poor school
adjustment (CDC, 2014).
In the U.S. homicide is the leading cause
of death for young men age 10 to 24. According to the Centers for Disease
Control and Prevention (CDC) the firearm homicide rate among
males ages 10 to 24 years was highest for Non-Hispanic Blacks with 48.4 deaths
per 100,000 population (CDC, 2013). In
the state of Texas homicide rates have decreased from 16.7 per 100,000
population in 1994 to 6.5 per 100,000 population in 2010, yet for African-Americans
males age 10 to 24 homicide continues to be the leading cause of death (30.2
per 100,000 compared to 6.9 per 100,000 population white males and 11.0 per
100,000 population Hispanic males) (CDC, 2013). Homicide rates are perpetuated
by social-economic problems and ongoing programs are needed to address these
issues to reduce homicides and other crimes.
The
literature suggests that the
physical and social environment such as poverty, access to firearms and drugs,
urbanization, disadvantaged neighborhoods, poor social support (parents,
teachers, classmates, and close friends) and inadequate education and school
systems plays a large role in determining and individuals potential for
engagement in violence behavior (Reese, Vera, Thompson & Reyes,
2001; Li, Nussbaum, and Richards, 2007; McMahon, Coker & Parnes, 2013). Of these, poverty is of cited as the
most significant factor of particular importance considering 20% of individuals
living in poverty are under the age of 18 and African-Americans represent 26%
of these individuals (Reese, Vera, Thompson and Reyes,
2001). Vowell and Mary
(2000) suggest that many inner-city African American youth feel strained by
society and are unable to achieve their fullest potential because of
competitive disadvantages, economic resources and limited opportunities. As a
result, they reject normative structures and may engage in risky behaviors
including drugs, alcohol, or violent behavior.
Reese,
Vera, Thompson & Reyes (2001) suggest that most teen experiences are interrelated,
for example, experimentation with drugs and alcohol are usually tied together,
and therefore, programs should approach violence prevention strategies from a
multifactorial viewpoint. The literature further suggests that programs examine
emotional support, improve communication skills, coping skills, eliminate gang
activity, and that bolster child and parent relationships simultaneously may be
possible strategies to manage violence. 
Violence
continues to threaten the health and wellness of African American youth. The
literature suggests environmental and social factors play a key role in
predicting violent behavior. Members of the target population are often
excluded from intervention development and there are significant gaps in
participant involvement in strategy and design. It is important to involve
individuals in planning interventions and to empower them to take control of
their health. Informed violence
prevention strategies may be accomplished through implementing techniques such
as Community Based Participatory Research (CPBR) or peer education, which
encourage discussion and active participant engagement.
References
Battle,
S. F. (2002). Health Concerns for African American Youth. Journal of
Health & Social Policy, 15(2), 35-44.
Center
for Disease Control & Prevention (2014). HIV among youth. Retrieved
from: http://www.cdc.gov/hiv/risk/age/youth/index.html?s_cid=tw_std0141316
Centers
for Disease Control & Prevention (2014). Youth Violence: facts at a
glance. Retrieved from: http://www.cdc.gov/violenceprevention/pdf/yv-datasheet-a.pdf
Hardy, D (2005). In the
mix: stop bullying take a stand. Public Broadcast Service. Retrieved from: http://www-tc.pbs.org/inthemix/educators/lessons/bullying_guide.pdf
Li,
S. T., Nussbaum, K. M., & Richards, M. H. (2007). Risk and protective factors
for urban African-American youth. American Journal of Community Psychology, 39(1-2),
21-35.
McMahon,
S. D., Coker, C. and Parnes, A. L. (2013). Environmental stressors, social
support, and internalizing symptoms among African American youth. Journal of Community Psychology, 41: 615–630.
Meares, T. (2008). Legitimacy of police among young
African-American men. The Marquette Law Review 92, 651.
Reese,
L. R. E., Vera, E. M., Thompson, K., & Reyes, R. (2001). A qualitative
investigation of perceptions of violence risk factors in low-income African
American children. Journal of clinical child psychology,
30(2), 161-171.
Stewart, E. A., Schreck, C. J., & Simons, R. L. (2006). “I
ain't gonna let no one disrespect me” does the code of the street deduce or
increase violent victimization among African American adolescents?, Journal
of Research in Crime and Delinquency,
43(4), 427-458.
Teplin, L. A., McClelland, G. M., Abram, K. M., & Mileusnic,
D. (2005). Early violent death among delinquent youth: a prospective
longitudinal study. Pediatrics, 115(6),
1586-1593.
The
Henry J. Kaiser Family Foundation (2006). Young African American Men in the
United States: race, ethnicity, & healthcare fact sheet. Retrieved
from: http://kaiserfamilyfoundation.files.wordpress.com/2013/01/7541.pdf
U.S.
Census Bureau (2010). Age groups and sex. Retrieved from:
http://factfinder2.census.gov/faces/tableservices/jsf/pages/productview.xhtml?pid=DEC_10_SF2_QTP1&prodType=table
Vowell,
P. R., & May, D. C. (2000). Another look at classic strain theory: Poverty
status, perceived blocked opportunity, and gang membership as predictors of
adolescent violent behavior. Sociological Inquiry, 70(1), 42-60.
Wang,
J., Iannotti, R. J., & Nansel, T. R. (2009). School bullying among adolescents
in the United States: Physical, verbal, relational, and cyber. Journal of Adolescent
Health, 45(4), 368-375.
Byron Hunter, MPH, FACHE is a
PhD Student in the Department of Health Studies at Texas Woman’s University in
Denton, TX. All correspondence should be sent to bhunter3@twu.edu. Pictured
individuals are members of Alpha Phi Alpha Fraternity, Incorporated, which is
the first Greek-lettered Fraternity for African American. The fraternity’s headquarters
is in Baltimore, MD and the organizations aims are ‘Manly Deeds, Scholarship, and Love for all Mankind.’ The
organization leads violence prevention and other training programs for
inner-city youth and young adults.
